Diversity and distribution of parasitic flowering plants in Iran
UDC 581.95(571.54)
Keywords:
conservation, Iran, Orobanchaceae, parasitic flowering plants
Abstract
Iran is home to a number of taxa of parasitic plants that are distributed in diverse ecological zones of the country. The present study examined the diversity and distribution patterns of these taxa. The geo-referenced dataset of Iranian parasitic species was formed using the distributional data available in “Flora of Iran” and “Flora Iranica” as well as several herbaria. To evaluate species richness and determine the main hotspots of parasitic flora in Iran, species distribution points were mapped on 0.25° × 0.25° grid cells using the Geographic Information System. In addition, the area-corrected species richness of parasitic angiosperms was calculated for each provincial unit. According to the results, the flora of Iran includes 104 species of 21 genera belonging to parasitic plant families that cover about 1.3 % of angiosperm species nationwide. Overall, the highest species richness occurs in parts of northwestern Iran and the Central Alborz. The richness of parasitic angiosperm species is very diverse among provinces of Iran. East Azarbaijan and South Khorasan provinces have the highest and lowest number of species, respectively.
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References
Alai Taleghani M. 2005. Geomorphology of Iran.Tehran: Qoms Publishing. 404 pp.
Amiri M., Eslamian S. 2010. Investigation of climate change in Iran. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 3(4): 208–216.
Bellot S., Renner S. S. 2013. Pollination and mating systems of Apodanthaceae and the distribution of reproductive traits in parasitic angiosperms. Am. J. Bot. 100(6): 1083–1094.
Berberian M., King G. 1981. Towards a paleogeography and tectonic evolution of Iran. Can. J. Earth Sci. 18(2): 210–265.
Breckle S.-W. 2002. Walter's vegetation of the earth: the ecological systems of the geo-biosphere. Berlin – Heidelberg – New York: Springer–Verlag. 527 pp.
Dewan M. L., Famouri J. 1964. The soils of Iran. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 319 pp.
Djamali M., Akhani H., Khoshravesh R., Andrieu-Ponel V., Ponel P., Brewer S. 2011. Application of the Global Bioclimatic Classification to Iran: implications for understanding the modern vegetation and biogeography. Ecol. Mediterr. 37: 91–114. https://doi.org/10.3406/ecmed.2011.1350
Dueholm B., Bruce D., Weinstein P., Semple S., Lindberg Møller B., Weiner J. 2017. Spatial analysis of root hemiparasitic shrubs and their hosts: a search for spatial signatures of above-and below-ground interactions. Plant Ecology 218(2): 185–196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11258-016-0676-8
Eo S. H., Wares J. P., Carroll J. P. 2008. Population divergence in plant species reflects latitudinal biodiversity gradients. Biol. Lett. 4: 382–384. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2008.0109
Frey W., Probst W. 1974. Vegetation und Klima des Zentralelburs und der südkaspischen Küstenebene (Nordiran). Beiträge zur Physischen Geographie Irans. Marburger Geog. Schrift 62: 93–116.
Hedge I. C., Wendelbo P. 1978. Patterns of distribution and endemism in Iran. Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinb. 36: 441–464.
Joshi J., Matthies D., Schmid B. 2000. Root hemiparasites and plant diversity in experimental grassland communities. J. Ecol. 88(4): 634–644. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2745.2000.00487.x
Kaiser B., Vogg G., Fürst U. B., Albert M. 2015. Parasitic plants of the genus Cuscuta and their interaction with susceptible and resistant host plants. Front. Plant Sci. 6: 45. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2015.00045
Khajoei Nasab F., Khosravi A. R. 2020. Identification of the areas of endemism (AOEs) of the genus Acantholimon (Plumbaginaceae) in Iran. Plant Biosyst. 154: 726–736. https://doi.org/10.1080/11263504.2019.1686078
Khajoei Nasab F., Mehrabian A. R. 2022. Diversity centers as well as conservation priorities of the genus Onosma L. (Boraginaceae) in Iran. Turczaninowia 25: 137–150. https://doi.org/10.14258/turczaninowia.25.2.13
Khajoei Nasab F., Mehrabian A. R., Chakerhosseini M., Biglary N. 2024b. Climate change causes the displacement and shrinking of the optimal habitats of nectar-producing species of Nepeta in Iran. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 155: 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-023-04629-4
Khajoei Nasab F., Shakoori Z., Zeraatkar A. 2024a. Modeling the richness and spatial distribution of the wild relatives of Iranian pears (Pyrus L.) for conservation management. Sci. Rep. 14: 18196. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-69135-7
Khajoei Nasab F., Zeraatkar A. 2024. Modeling the potential effects of climate change on the distribution of Tetrataenium lasiopetalum (Apiaceae) in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province, Iran. Iran. J. Bot. 30(2): 220–233. https://doi.org/10.22092/ijb.2024.367084.1492
Klein J.-C. 1972. Le Genisteto-Carlinetum macrocephalae ass. nov. de l’étage montagnard et le Ligusticetum corsici ass. nov. de l’étage subalpin des massifs du Cinto et du Campotile orientale. Vegetatio 25(1–4): 311–333.
Klimeš L. 2003. Life forms and clonality of vascular plants along an altitudinal gradient in E Ladakh (NW Himalayas). Basic. Appl. Ecol. 4: 317–328. https://doi.org/10.1078/1439-1791-00163
Kuijt J. 1969. The biology of parasitic flowering plants. Berkeley: University of California Press. 246 pp.
Maassoumi A. A., Khajoei Nasab F. 2023. Centers of richness and endemism of the megagenus Astragalus (Fabaceae) in Iran. Collect. Bot. 42: e001. https://doi.org/10.3989/collectbot.2023.v42.001
Mehrabian A. R. 2015. Distribution patterns and diversity of Onosma in Iran: with emphasis on endemism conservation and distribution pattern in SW Asia. Rostaniha 16(1): 36–60.
Mehrabian A., Khajoei Nasab F. 2021. Distribution patterns, diversity centers, and priorities for conservation of aquatic plants in Iran. In: L. A. Jawad (ed.). Southern Iraq's Marshes. Coastal Research Library. Vol. 36. Cham: Springer. Pp. 233–249. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66238-7-13
Mutikainen P., Salonen V., Puustinen S., Koskela T. 2000. Local adaptation, resistance, and virulence in a hemiparasitic plant‐host plant interaction. Evolution 54(2): 433–440. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.tb00046.x
Nickrent D. L. 2020. Parasitic angiosperms: how often and how many? Taxon 69(1): 5–27. https://doi.org/10.1002/tax.12195
Nickrent D., Musselman L. 2004. Introduction to parasitic flowering plants. Plant Health. Instruct. 13. https://doi.org/10.1094/PHI-I-2004-0330-01
O’Neill A. R., Rana S. K. 2016. An ethnobotanical analysis of parasitic plants (Parijibi) in the Nepal Himalaya. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 12(1): 14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0086-y
Poulin R. 2011. The many roads to parasitism: a tale of convergence. J. Adv. Parasitol. 74: 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385897-9.00001-X
Press M. C., Phoenix G. K. 2005. Effects of climate change on parasitic plants: the root hemiparasitic Orobanchaceae. Folia Geobot. 40(2–3): 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02803235Rapoport E. H. 1975. Areografía: Estrategias Geográficas de Las Especies. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica. 214 pp.
Raunkiaer C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography; being the collected papers of C. Raunkiaer. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 pp.
Rivas-Martinez S., Sanchez-Mata D., Costa M. 1999. Syntaxonomical synopsis of the potential natural plant communities of North America, 2: North American boreal and Western temperate forest vegetation. Itinera Geobot. 12: 3–311.
Spooner D. M., Hijmans R. J. 2001. Potato systematics and germplasm collecting, 1989–2000. Am. J. Potato Res. 78(4): 237 –268. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02875691
Stewart G. R., Press M. C. 1990. The physiology and biochemistry of parasitic angiosperms. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 41(1): 127–151.
Stöcklin J. 1974. Northern Iran: Alborz Mountains (Geological Society of London). Vol. 4, iss. 1. London: Special Publications. Pp. 213–234.
Sürmen B., Kutbay H. G., Yilmaz H. 2015. Parasitic angiosperm plants of Turkey. J. Inst. Sci. Technol. 5: 17–24.
Thiers B. 2019. Index herbariorum: A global directory of public herbaria and associated staff. New York Botanical Garden’s Virtual Herbarium. URL: http://sweetgum.nybg.org/ih (Accessed 15 May 2023).
Westwood J. H., Yoder J. I., Timko M. P., de Pamphilis C. W. 2010. The evolution of parasitism in plants. Trends Plant Sci. 15(4): 227–235. https://doi.org/0.1016/j.tplants.2010.01.004
Willig M. R., Kaufman D. M, Stevens R. D. 2003. Latitudinal gradients of biodiversity: patterns, process, and systhesis. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 34: 273–309. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.012103.144032
Xu W., Svenning J.C., Chen G., Chen B., Huang J., Ma K. 2018. Plant geographical range size and climate stability in China: Growth form matters. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 27: 506–517. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12710
Zeraatkar A., Khajoei Nasab F. 2024. Mapping the habitat suitability of endemic and sub-endemic almond species in Iran under current and future climate conditions. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 26: 14859–14876. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03223-y
Zhang G., Li Q., Sun S. 2018. Diversity and distribution of parasitic angiosperms in China. Ecol. Evol. 8(9): 4378–4386. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3992
Zhang M., Chen Y., Ouyang Y., Huang Z., Teixeira da Silva J. A., Ma G. 2015. The biology and haustorial anatomy of semi-parasitic Monochasma savatieri Franch. ex Maxim. Plant Growth. Regul. 75(2): 473–481. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10725-014-0010-1
Zohary M. 1973. Geobotanical foundations of the Middle East. Vol. 2. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag Press. 738 pp.
Zwanenburg B., Mwakaboko A. S., Kannan C. 2016. Perspective of suicidal germination for parasitic weed control. Pest. Manag. Sci. 72(11): 2016–2025. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.4222
Amiri M., Eslamian S. 2010. Investigation of climate change in Iran. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 3(4): 208–216.
Bellot S., Renner S. S. 2013. Pollination and mating systems of Apodanthaceae and the distribution of reproductive traits in parasitic angiosperms. Am. J. Bot. 100(6): 1083–1094.
Berberian M., King G. 1981. Towards a paleogeography and tectonic evolution of Iran. Can. J. Earth Sci. 18(2): 210–265.
Breckle S.-W. 2002. Walter's vegetation of the earth: the ecological systems of the geo-biosphere. Berlin – Heidelberg – New York: Springer–Verlag. 527 pp.
Dewan M. L., Famouri J. 1964. The soils of Iran. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 319 pp.
Djamali M., Akhani H., Khoshravesh R., Andrieu-Ponel V., Ponel P., Brewer S. 2011. Application of the Global Bioclimatic Classification to Iran: implications for understanding the modern vegetation and biogeography. Ecol. Mediterr. 37: 91–114. https://doi.org/10.3406/ecmed.2011.1350
Dueholm B., Bruce D., Weinstein P., Semple S., Lindberg Møller B., Weiner J. 2017. Spatial analysis of root hemiparasitic shrubs and their hosts: a search for spatial signatures of above-and below-ground interactions. Plant Ecology 218(2): 185–196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11258-016-0676-8
Eo S. H., Wares J. P., Carroll J. P. 2008. Population divergence in plant species reflects latitudinal biodiversity gradients. Biol. Lett. 4: 382–384. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2008.0109
Frey W., Probst W. 1974. Vegetation und Klima des Zentralelburs und der südkaspischen Küstenebene (Nordiran). Beiträge zur Physischen Geographie Irans. Marburger Geog. Schrift 62: 93–116.
Hedge I. C., Wendelbo P. 1978. Patterns of distribution and endemism in Iran. Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinb. 36: 441–464.
Joshi J., Matthies D., Schmid B. 2000. Root hemiparasites and plant diversity in experimental grassland communities. J. Ecol. 88(4): 634–644. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2745.2000.00487.x
Kaiser B., Vogg G., Fürst U. B., Albert M. 2015. Parasitic plants of the genus Cuscuta and their interaction with susceptible and resistant host plants. Front. Plant Sci. 6: 45. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2015.00045
Khajoei Nasab F., Khosravi A. R. 2020. Identification of the areas of endemism (AOEs) of the genus Acantholimon (Plumbaginaceae) in Iran. Plant Biosyst. 154: 726–736. https://doi.org/10.1080/11263504.2019.1686078
Khajoei Nasab F., Mehrabian A. R. 2022. Diversity centers as well as conservation priorities of the genus Onosma L. (Boraginaceae) in Iran. Turczaninowia 25: 137–150. https://doi.org/10.14258/turczaninowia.25.2.13
Khajoei Nasab F., Mehrabian A. R., Chakerhosseini M., Biglary N. 2024b. Climate change causes the displacement and shrinking of the optimal habitats of nectar-producing species of Nepeta in Iran. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 155: 249–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-023-04629-4
Khajoei Nasab F., Shakoori Z., Zeraatkar A. 2024a. Modeling the richness and spatial distribution of the wild relatives of Iranian pears (Pyrus L.) for conservation management. Sci. Rep. 14: 18196. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-69135-7
Khajoei Nasab F., Zeraatkar A. 2024. Modeling the potential effects of climate change on the distribution of Tetrataenium lasiopetalum (Apiaceae) in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province, Iran. Iran. J. Bot. 30(2): 220–233. https://doi.org/10.22092/ijb.2024.367084.1492
Klein J.-C. 1972. Le Genisteto-Carlinetum macrocephalae ass. nov. de l’étage montagnard et le Ligusticetum corsici ass. nov. de l’étage subalpin des massifs du Cinto et du Campotile orientale. Vegetatio 25(1–4): 311–333.
Klimeš L. 2003. Life forms and clonality of vascular plants along an altitudinal gradient in E Ladakh (NW Himalayas). Basic. Appl. Ecol. 4: 317–328. https://doi.org/10.1078/1439-1791-00163
Kuijt J. 1969. The biology of parasitic flowering plants. Berkeley: University of California Press. 246 pp.
Maassoumi A. A., Khajoei Nasab F. 2023. Centers of richness and endemism of the megagenus Astragalus (Fabaceae) in Iran. Collect. Bot. 42: e001. https://doi.org/10.3989/collectbot.2023.v42.001
Mehrabian A. R. 2015. Distribution patterns and diversity of Onosma in Iran: with emphasis on endemism conservation and distribution pattern in SW Asia. Rostaniha 16(1): 36–60.
Mehrabian A., Khajoei Nasab F. 2021. Distribution patterns, diversity centers, and priorities for conservation of aquatic plants in Iran. In: L. A. Jawad (ed.). Southern Iraq's Marshes. Coastal Research Library. Vol. 36. Cham: Springer. Pp. 233–249. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66238-7-13
Mutikainen P., Salonen V., Puustinen S., Koskela T. 2000. Local adaptation, resistance, and virulence in a hemiparasitic plant‐host plant interaction. Evolution 54(2): 433–440. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.tb00046.x
Nickrent D. L. 2020. Parasitic angiosperms: how often and how many? Taxon 69(1): 5–27. https://doi.org/10.1002/tax.12195
Nickrent D., Musselman L. 2004. Introduction to parasitic flowering plants. Plant Health. Instruct. 13. https://doi.org/10.1094/PHI-I-2004-0330-01
O’Neill A. R., Rana S. K. 2016. An ethnobotanical analysis of parasitic plants (Parijibi) in the Nepal Himalaya. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 12(1): 14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0086-y
Poulin R. 2011. The many roads to parasitism: a tale of convergence. J. Adv. Parasitol. 74: 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385897-9.00001-X
Press M. C., Phoenix G. K. 2005. Effects of climate change on parasitic plants: the root hemiparasitic Orobanchaceae. Folia Geobot. 40(2–3): 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02803235Rapoport E. H. 1975. Areografía: Estrategias Geográficas de Las Especies. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica. 214 pp.
Raunkiaer C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography; being the collected papers of C. Raunkiaer. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 pp.
Rivas-Martinez S., Sanchez-Mata D., Costa M. 1999. Syntaxonomical synopsis of the potential natural plant communities of North America, 2: North American boreal and Western temperate forest vegetation. Itinera Geobot. 12: 3–311.
Spooner D. M., Hijmans R. J. 2001. Potato systematics and germplasm collecting, 1989–2000. Am. J. Potato Res. 78(4): 237 –268. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02875691
Stewart G. R., Press M. C. 1990. The physiology and biochemistry of parasitic angiosperms. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 41(1): 127–151.
Stöcklin J. 1974. Northern Iran: Alborz Mountains (Geological Society of London). Vol. 4, iss. 1. London: Special Publications. Pp. 213–234.
Sürmen B., Kutbay H. G., Yilmaz H. 2015. Parasitic angiosperm plants of Turkey. J. Inst. Sci. Technol. 5: 17–24.
Thiers B. 2019. Index herbariorum: A global directory of public herbaria and associated staff. New York Botanical Garden’s Virtual Herbarium. URL: http://sweetgum.nybg.org/ih (Accessed 15 May 2023).
Westwood J. H., Yoder J. I., Timko M. P., de Pamphilis C. W. 2010. The evolution of parasitism in plants. Trends Plant Sci. 15(4): 227–235. https://doi.org/0.1016/j.tplants.2010.01.004
Willig M. R., Kaufman D. M, Stevens R. D. 2003. Latitudinal gradients of biodiversity: patterns, process, and systhesis. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 34: 273–309. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.012103.144032
Xu W., Svenning J.C., Chen G., Chen B., Huang J., Ma K. 2018. Plant geographical range size and climate stability in China: Growth form matters. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 27: 506–517. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.12710
Zeraatkar A., Khajoei Nasab F. 2024. Mapping the habitat suitability of endemic and sub-endemic almond species in Iran under current and future climate conditions. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 26: 14859–14876. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03223-y
Zhang G., Li Q., Sun S. 2018. Diversity and distribution of parasitic angiosperms in China. Ecol. Evol. 8(9): 4378–4386. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3992
Zhang M., Chen Y., Ouyang Y., Huang Z., Teixeira da Silva J. A., Ma G. 2015. The biology and haustorial anatomy of semi-parasitic Monochasma savatieri Franch. ex Maxim. Plant Growth. Regul. 75(2): 473–481. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10725-014-0010-1
Zohary M. 1973. Geobotanical foundations of the Middle East. Vol. 2. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag Press. 738 pp.
Zwanenburg B., Mwakaboko A. S., Kannan C. 2016. Perspective of suicidal germination for parasitic weed control. Pest. Manag. Sci. 72(11): 2016–2025. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.4222
Published
2025-03-31
How to Cite
Khajoei Nasab F., Karimi Bekr Z., Mehrabian A. R., Rahimi S., Mostafavi H. Diversity and distribution of parasitic flowering plants in Iran // Turczaninowia, 2025. Vol. 28, № 1. P. 5-15 DOI: 10.14258/turczaninowia.28.1.1. URL: http://turczaninowia.asu.ru/article/view/17062.
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